"Instructional Technology is the problem analysis, solution design, development, implementation, management, and evaluation of instructional processes and resources to improve learning and performance in education and at work." (Reiser, 2001).

Instructional Technologies Timeline: 1900-2004

Figure 1: This timeline shows some of the most influential technologies, theories, trends, and factors in instructional technology in the last century. 1

Use of Intranet/Internet, software and multimedia as an instructional technology or tool:

Behaviorism: (emphasizes observable behavior, rather than inner mental experiences)

• Intranet/ Internet software and multimedia can be used as drill and practice tool for skill-building;
• Intranet/Internet software and multimedia can also be used to support direct instruction;
• Intranet-based classroom management system can be used to provide feedback in the lab environment.

Cognitivism: (emphasizes the importance of perception, learning, and thought as bases for understanding human behavior and learning.)

• Internet can be used for discovery tasks;
• Internet, software and multimedia can be used for problem diagnosis, and troubleshooting;
• Internet, software and multimedia can be useful for the breakdown of an instructional topic and deliver a set of transformed cognitive tasks.

Constructivism: (learner is in charge of his or her own learning experience.)

• Internet can be used for social interaction and discovery learning over the distance;
• WebQuest (an inquirybased activity) can be used to solve problems or gain deeper insights, and to support learners' thinking in terms of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Which will help the learners to select and integrate their own schemas in order to make sense of the world.

“... the Web, having emerged in the mid-90's, with its networked, interactive environments, accessible through portable and handheld devices, offers functionality that goes beyond behavioristic or cognitivistic worldviews, and recasts learning as a ubiquitous, experiential, self-driven activity.” (Whelan, 2005)

What are the basics of each theory?

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How does learning occur?

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Which factors influence learning?

Behaviorism	Cognitivism	Constructivism
Both learner and environmental factors are considered important by behaviorists, environmental conditions receive the greatest emphasis. Behaviorists assess the learners to determine at what point to begin instruction as well as to determine which reinforcers are most effective for a particular student. The most critical factor, however, is the arrangement of stimuli and consequences within the environment.	Cognitivism, like behaviorism, emphasizes the role that environmental conditions play in facilitating learning. Instructional explanations, demonstrations, illustrative examples and matched non-examples are all considered to be instrumental in guiding student learning. Similarly, emphasis is placed on the role of practice with corrective feedback. Up to this point, little difference can be detected between these two theories. However, the "active" nature of the learner is perceived quite differently. The cognitive approach focuses on the mental activities of the learner that lead up to a response and acknowledges the processes of mental planning, goal-setting, and organizational strategies (Shuell, 1986). Cognitive theories contend that environmental "cues" and instructional components alone cannot account for all the learning that results from an instructional situation. Additional key elements include the way that learners attend to, code, transform, rehearse, store and retrieve information. Learners' thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, and values are also considered to be influential in the learning process (Winne, 1985). The real focus of the cognitive approach is on changing the learner by encouraging him/her to use appropriate learning strategies.	Both learner and environmental factors are critical to the constructivist, as it is the specific interaction between these two variables that creates knowledge. Constructivists argue that behavior is situationally determined (Jonassen, 1991a). Just as the learning of new vocabulary words is enhanced by exposure and subsequent interaction with those words in context (as opposed to learning their meanings from a dictionary), likewise it is essential that content knowledge be embedded in the situation in which it is used. Brown, Collins, and Duguid (1989) suggest that situations actually co-produce knowledge (along with cognition) through activity. Every action is viewed as "an interpretation of the current situation based on an entire history of previous interactions" (Clancey, 1986). Just as shades of meanings of given words are constantly changing a learner's "current" understanding of a word, so too will concepts continually evolve with each new use. For this reason, it is critical that learning occur in realistic settings and that the selected learning tasks be relevant to the students' lived experience.
Ertmer, P.A. and Newby, T.J.  (1993)

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Role of learner in each theory:

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How does transfer occur?

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Role of instructor/ instructional designer:

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References:

Anderson, J., (2003). ACT-R: John R. Anderson Research Interests. Retrieved July 20, 2006, from http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/

Clark, D. (1999). Fred Keller and PSI. Retrieved online July 3, 2006 from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/history/psi.html.

Chowdhury, M. (2006) New technologies in new media classroom. IEEE Xplore. IEEE Catalog Number: 06EX1387C, ISBN: 1-4244-0406-1, Library of Congress: 2006925538

Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Doolittle, P. E. Integrating Constructivism & Cognitivism. Retrieved August 15, 2006 from http://edpsychserver.ed.vt.edu/research/icc.html.

Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Ertmer P. A. & Newby T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Design Perspective. Retrieved August 15, 2006 from http://vcs.ccc.cccd.edu/crs/special/ertnew1.htm

Gardner, H. (2000). Can technology exploit our many ways of knowing? Can Technology Exploit Our Many Ways of Knowing

Ho, W. (n.d.). Cognitive theories of learning. Retrieved August 17, 2006 from http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/w/x/wxh139/cognitive_1.htm#schemta

Jonassen, D. (2000). Computers as mindtools for schools: engaging critical thinking. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

Mergel, B. (1998). Instructional design and learning theory. Retrieved July 12, 2006, from http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm

Molenda, M., Reigeluth, C. M., & Nelson, L. M. (2003). Instructional Design. In L. Nadel. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science (Vol. 2, 574 – 578). [Electronic version].

Naik, P. (1998). Behaviorism as a Theory of Personality: A Critical Look. Retrieved online July 10, 2006 from http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/naik.html

Papert, S. (1984). New theories for new learnings. School Psychology Review. 13(4), 422-428.

Precision Teaching (n.d.). Retrieved online July 3, 2006 from http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/387/OpenModules/Lindsley/introa1.shtml

Reiser, R., (2001). A History of Instructional Design & Technology: Part I: A History of Instructional Media. Educational Technology Research & Development, 49(1), pp 53-64.

Simpson J. (2000) It's All in the Upbringing. Retrieved August 16, 2006, from http://www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/0400web/35.html

Skinner B. F. (1947) Superstition' in the Pigeon. Journal of Experimental Psychology. 38, pp. 168-172. Retrieved August 16, 2006, from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Skinner/Pigeon/

Valdez, G., McNabb, M., Foertsch, M., Anderson, M., Hawkes, M., Raack, L., (2001).Computer-Based Technology and Learning: Evolving Uses and Expectations. North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. Retrieved August 9, 2006 from http://www.tc.umn.edu/~mcleod/criticalissues/pdf/valdez.pdf.

Veenema, S. & Gardner, H. (1996). Multimedia and multiple intelligence. The American Prospect, November-December, 1996, 29, p 69-75

Watson, J. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, pp. 158-177. . Retrieved August 12, 2006, from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/views.htm

Watson, J. B. & Rayner, R. (1920) Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3(1), pp. 1-14. Retrieved August 12, 2006, from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/emotion.htm

Wiman, R. V. & Meierhenry, W. C. (1969). Educational media: Theory into practice. Columbus, OH: Merrill.

Whelan R. (2005). Instructional technology & theory: a look at past, present & future trends. Retrieved August 18, 2006, from http://www.nyu.edu/its/pubs/connect/spring05/whelan_it_history.html

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Links:

• Aspects of learning theory
• Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Design Perspective
• Technology and Learning in 2005
• Instructional Technology Theory Database
• E-Learning Europe Program
• EDUCAUSE: http://www.educause.edu/
• Podcasting: iPod Therefore iPodcast

Footnotes:

1. Timeline graphic recreated by the author, drawing from the Reiser (2001) and Whelan (2005).

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