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Final Project › Behaviorism : Theories | Theorists | References | Links

“The theory of behaviorism concentrates on the study of overt behaviors that can be observed and measured (Good & Brophy, 1990)” (Mergel, 1998)

Summary:

Behaviorism learning theory is based on observable changes in behavior and focuses on a new behavioral pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic; Behavioral changes are measured and explained in Behaviorism, it also finds out the behavioral changes needed to conduct the task, and then determine the learner objectives to reach those goals. The behaviorists believes that environment shapes behaviour. Behaviorism finds out the behavioral changes needed to conduct the task, and then determine the learner objectives to reach those goals.

Behaviorism Philosophy:

  • Behaviorism is concerned with the changes in a students behaviour that occur as aresult of learning.
  • Environmental conditions serve as discriminative stimuli, cueing which behavior is appropriate to perform (Driscoll, 2005).
  • Role of the learner is to be active in the environment, consequences that follow behavior determine whether it is repeated or not (Driscoll, 2005).
  • Role of the Instructor is to identify learning goals; determine contingencies of reinforcement; implement program of behavior change; and negotiate all of these with the learner’s input (Driscoll, 2005).

Key words: Operant conditioning, respondent conditioning, stimulus-response, reinforcement, rote learning, memorization, incremental learning, multiple response, identical elements theory of transfer, trial-and-error-learning, reinforceement schedule, programmed learning, shaping, teaching machine, conditions of learning, principles of instruction.

Process:

  1. Observe student behaviour.
  2. Establish a sequence of reiforceable steps, or remove reinforcement that is producing negative behaviour, and help to move the student to the desired behaviour.
  3. Wait for the desired response, and reinforce it.

Behaviorist Theories:

  • Shaping - B.F.kinner
  • Operant Conditioning - B. F. Skinner
  • Classical Conditioning - Pavlov
  • Modern classical conditioning - A. Rescorla
  • Radical Behaviorism - J.B. Watson
  • Imitation in monkeys - J.B. Watson (1908)
  • The law of effect - E. L. Thorndike
  • Instrumental conditioning on cats - E.L. Thorndike (1913)
  • Patellar reflex - E. B. Twitmeyer (1902)
  • The Concept of the Mind - Gilbert Ryle (1949)
  • Teaching machines - Peterson (1931)

Behaviorist theorists:

Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich [1849-1936]

Pavlov

Pavlov discovered Classical Conditioning while studying digestive reflexes in dogs; he presented dogs with food and observed their salivary response. Then he started ringing a bell before presenting the food, and noticed that initially dog didn’t salivate until the food was there but after a while he began to salivate with the sound of the bell. They were associating sound of the bell with food. In his experiment, at the beginning food was the unconditioned stimulus, and salivation was unconditioned response (natural, not learned); after he introduced the bell, bell was conditioned stimulus and salivation was conditioned response to bell. “According to the classical conditioning paradigm, an unconditional stimulus (UCS) biologically and involuntarily elicits an unconditioned response (UCR). “(Driscoll, 2005)

Figure 1.1: Classical Conditioning 1

www.ivanpavlov.com External link

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John Broadus (J.B.) Watson [1878-1958]

Watson

John B. Watson was an American psychologist and coined the term “behaviorism”. Initially he was involved in animal research, but later focused in the study of human behavior. He was also one of the first American psychologist to use Pavlov's ideas. Naik (1998) found that, Watson believed that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage. All other behavior is established through stimulus-response associations through conditioning. He is known for having claimed that he could take any 12 healthy infants and, by applying behavioral techniques, create whatever kind of person he desired. He is also well known for “Little Albert” experiment, where he demonstrated classical conditioning by involving a young child (Albert) and a white rat.

Simpson (2000) found that , "Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select--doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and, yes, even beggarman and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors," he wrote in 1924. "I am going beyond my facts and I admit it, but so have the advocates of the contrary and they have been doing it for many thousands of years."

John B. Watson. His Life in Words and Pictures External link

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Burrhus Frederick (B.F.) Skinner [1904-1990]

B.F. Skinner

Harvard psychologist, a member of U.S. Army Intelligence, who discovered Operant Conditioning. According to Mergel (1998), like Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike, Skinner believed in the stimulus-response pattern of conditioned behavior. His theory dealt with changes in observable behavior, ignoring the possibility of any processes occurring in the mind. Skinner's 1948 book, Walden Two , is about a utopian society based on operant conditioning. He also wrote, Science and Human Behavior, (1953) in which he pointed out how the principles of operant conditioning function in social institutions such as government, law, religion, economics and education (Dembo, 1994). Skinner also developed the idea of shaping (the method of successive approximations), which happens by reinforcing a behavior that is vaguely similar to the desired behavior. His another famous inventions was socialized child conditioning chamber experiment and instrumental conditioning chamber, also known as “Skinner box”.

Mergel (1998) also found that, Skinner's Operant Conditioning Mechanisms focuses on: “Positive Reinforcement or reward: Responses that are rewarded are likely to be repeated. (Good grades reinforce careful study.); Negative Reinforcement: Responses that allow escape from painful or undesirable situations are likely to be repeated. (Being excused from writing a final because of good term work.); Extinction or Non-Reinforcement : Responses that are not reinforced are not likely to be repeated. (Ignoring student misbehavior should extinguish that behavior.); Punishment: Responses that bring painful or undesirable consequences will be suppressed, but may reappear if reinforcement contingencies change. (Penalizing late students by withdrawing privileges should stop their lateness.) (Good & Brophy, 1990).”

Skinner'd Experiments

"One bird was conditioned to turn counter-clockwise about the cage, making two or three turns between reinforcements. Another repeatedly thrust its head into one of the upper corners of the cage. A third developed a 'tossing' response, as if placing its head beneath an invisible bar and lifting it repeatedly. Two birds developed a pendulum motion of the head and body, in which the head was extended forward and swung from right to left with a sharp movement followed by a somewhat slower return." (Skinner, 1947)

BF Skinner Foundation External link
BF Skinner defining Operant Conditioning: Quicktime videoExternal link


Others: E.L. Thorndike, C.I. Hull, A.I. Gates, J.M. Stephens, E.R. Guthrie, W.K. Estes, K.W. Spence, R.M. Gagne, A. Bandura.

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References:

Anderson, J., (2003). ACT-R: John R. Anderson Research Interests. Retrieved July 20, 2006, from http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/

Clark, D. (1999). Fred Keller and PSI. Retrieved online July 3, 2006 from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/history/psi.html.

Chowdhury, M. (2006) New technologies in new media classroom. IEEE Xplore. IEEE Catalog Number: 06EX1387C, ISBN: 1-4244-0406-1, Library of Congress: 2006925538

Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Doolittle, P. E. Integrating Constructivism & Cognitivism. Retrieved August 15, 2006 from http://edpsychserver.ed.vt.edu/research/icc.html.

Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Gardner, H. (2000). Can technology exploit our many ways of knowing? Can Technology Exploit Our Many Ways of Knowing

Jonassen, D. (2000). Computers as mindtools for schools: engaging critical thinking. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

Mergel, B. (1998). Instructional design and learning theory. Retrieved July 12, 2006, from http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm

Molenda, M., Reigeluth, C. M., & Nelson, L. M. (2003). Instructional Design. In L. Nadel. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science (Vol. 2, 574 – 578). [Electronic version].

Naik, P (1998). Behaviorism as a Theory of Personality: A Critical Look. Retrieved online July 10, 2006 from http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/naik.html

Precision Teaching (n.d.). Retrieved online July 3, 2006 from http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/387/OpenModules/Lindsley/introa1.shtml

Simpson J. (2000) It's All in the Upbringing. Retrieved August 16, 2006, from http://www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/0400web/35.html

Skinner B. F. (1947) Superstition' in the Pigeon. Journal of Experimental Psychology. 38, pp. 168-172. Retrieved August 16, 2006, from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Skinner/Pigeon/

Valdez, G., McNabb, M., Foertsch, M., Anderson, M., Hawkes, M., Raack, L., (2001).Computer-Based Technology and Learning: Evolving Uses and Expectations. North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. Retrieved August 9, 2006 from http://www.tc.umn.edu/~mcleod/criticalissues/pdf/valdez.pdf.

Veenema, S. & Gardner, H. (1996). Multimedia and multiple intelligence. The American Prospect, November-December, 1996, 29, p 69-75

Watson, J. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, pp. 158-177. . Retrieved August 12, 2006, from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/views.htm

Watson, J. B. & Rayner, R. (1920) Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3(1), pp. 1-14. Retrieved August 12, 2006, from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/emotion.htm

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Links:

Footnote:

  1. Graphic modified by the author, drawing retrieved August 12, 2006 from http://library.thinkquest.org/C005704/media/classical_conditioning.gif

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